Hearing
Scientists who study the structure of organs (anatomists) typically divide the ear into three compartments: the outer (external) ear, middle ear, and inner ear (labyrinth). See the Figure.
Outer Ear
The outside part of the ear and the ear canal make up the outer ear. They function to collect sound (acoustic energy), and funnel it to the eardrum (tympanic membrane).
Middle Ear
Usually considered part of the middle ear, the eardrum is a thin, flexible membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear. The middle ear is an air filled space that houses the three middle ear bones that transmit sound. The first bone is the hammer (malleus), which is connected to the anvil (incus), which is connected to the stirrup (stapes). These tiny bones are named to reflect their particular shapes. The middle ear is connected to the back of the nose (nasopharynx) by the Eustachian tube.
Like the outer ear, the middle ear is involved in hearing. Thus, the sound energy coming from the outer ear causes the eardrum to vibrate. In turn, the eardrum sets into motion the first ear bone, which transmits the motion to the second bone. Finally, the third bone (the stapes) works like a piston to transform the sound energy into mechanical energy. The mechanical energy is then transmitted from the stapes to the hearing part (cochlea) of the inner ear.
Inner Ear (Labyrinth)
A delicate membranous inner ear (labyrinth) is enclosed and protected by a bony chamber that is referred to as the bony labyrinth. The inner ear is made up of both hearing (auditory) and balance (vestibular) components. As already mentioned, the cochlea is that part of the inner ear involved with hearing. (The semicircular canals and the vestibule are the parts of the inner ear involved with balance. See below.)
There are two compartments of fluid in the cochlea (as well as in the rest of the inner ear):
The perilymphatic space, which is within the bony labyrinth and surrounds the membranous labyrinth
The endolymphatic space, which is within the membranous labyrinth
As the stapes pushes back and forth against the cochlea, it compresses the fluid to create waves in the fluid-filled compartments. Depending on the characteristics of the waves, specific nerve messages (impulses) are created. These messages then travel through the cochlear nerve (the hearing branch of the eighth cranial nerve) to the base of the brain (brainstem) and brain where they are interpreted.
Figure 1. Diagram of outer, middle, and inner ear. The outer ear is labeled in the figure and includes the ear canal. The middle ear includes the eardrum (tympanic membrane) and three tiny bones for hearing. The bones are called the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), and stirrup (stapes) to reflect their shapes. The middle ear connects to the back of the throat by the Eustachian tube. The inner ear (labyrinth) contains the semicircular canals and vestibule for balance, and the cochlea for hearing.
Balance
The sense of balance is maintained by complex relationships between sense organs that are located in the ears, eyes, joints, skin, and muscles. The brain (part of the central nervous system) receives and processes the input from these peripheral sense organs. When the system is working successfully, the brain is able to tell us in what direction we are pointed, what direction we are moving toward, and if we are turning or standing still. Balance problems can occur, however, when the brain receives conflicting messages from the different sense organs, or if a disease affects one or more of the sense organs.
The Balance System
The vestibular (balance) system is made up of five organs that are housed in the inner ear (labyrinth). These so-called vestibular organs are the three semicircular canals, the saccule, and the utricle. (The saccule and the utricle make up the vestibule.) See the Figure. The semicircular canals are responsible for the detection of rotation (angular acceleration). In contrast, the saccule and utricle are responsible for the detection of straight-line (linear) acceleration and gravity.
As already mentioned, these five vestibular organs, as well as the hearing part (cochlea) of the inner ear, contain fluid-filled compartments (endolymphatic fluid in the endolymphatic space). What's more, these organs are contained within the fluid-filled bony labyrinth (perilymphatic fluid in the perilymphatic space). A healthy vestibular system is dependent on the proper maintenance of these fluid spaces. Furthermore, each vestibular organ has a paired partner in the other (contra lateral) ear. And, the partners are connected to each other in the brainstem by the vestibular nerve, which is the other main branch of the eighth cranial nerve.
The Semicircular Canals
The three semicircular canals in each ear are geometrically arranged precisely so that the canals are situated at right angles (perpendicular) to each other. Accordingly, rotational movement in any direction is measured by the appropriate semicircular canal in each ear. You see, the canals are fluid-filled circular tubes that work to produce messages by displacing the fluid during rotational movement.
The Vestibule (Saccule and Utricle)
In contrast to the three semicircular canals, the saccule and utricle respond to linear (straight line) acceleration and gravity. A dense structure called the macula is located in the wall of the saccule and utricle. The macula is made up of nerve endings that are capped by tiny stone-like structures. These stones (called otoconia or cupulolithiasis) are actually crystals or granules of calcium carbonate. They are imbedded in the cupula, which is a gelatinous layer that lines the macula. During head movement, the combined forces of linear acceleration and gravity displace the tiny stones, and thereby generate messages.
The Brain
The messages from the right and left vestibular systems feed by way of the right and left vestibular nerves into the vestibular centers (nuclei) in the brainstem. These centers also receive input from the eyes, muscles, spinal cord, and joints. Furthermore, higher centers in the brain continue to process the information. The final result is an integrated system that allows us to maintain our balance in our ever-changing environment.
When input from each ear is equal, the system is in balance, and there is no sense of movement. When inputs are unequal, the brain interprets this as movement. And, as a result, compensatory eye movements and postural adjustments occur to maintain balance. The brain can override or in some cases make up (compensate) for a loss of vestibular function. In fact, by using other sensory inputs, the brain can re-balance itself, and thereby often compensate for a complete loss of vestibular function in one ear.
Well, I hope that this information has helped you better understand the structure (anatomy) of the organs involved in the complex processes of hearing and balance.
By Medical Author: James K. Bredenkamp, MD, FACS
and Medical Editor: Leslie J. Schoenfield, M.D., Ph.D.
